Julius Caesar (cos. 59)

Broughton: Served in Farther Spain under Antistius Vetus (a). It is generally assumed that Caesar held the quaestorship in 68 (b), but he was eligible for the office in 69. The legions levied for service in Cilicia which still remained in Cisalpine Gaul at the time of his return from Spain (c) almost certainly belonged to the forces of Marcius Rex, Cos. 68. Moreover, though he went to the province by spring or summer of his year he was able to return, ante tempus (Suet.), i.e., before his commander, in time to support the Gabinian law in early 67. He probably entered office Dec. 5, 70, went to his province in spring 69, and returned in the course of 68. The eulogies of his aunt and his wife would then precede his departure for Spain. See L. R. Taylor, CPh 36 (1941) 122f.

Broughton: Bibulus was overshadowed in office by Caesar (a), whose magnificent games won him considerable popularity (b). He [Caesar] restored the trophies of Marius (c), and supported the plan of Crassus to annex Egypt (d)

Broughton: While Praetor-elect he helped to reveal the conspiracy of Catiline, but when the conspirators were arrested tried to save their lives (a). As Praetor he attempted to rob Catulus of the credit for restoring the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol and give it to Pompey, and supported the bill of the Tribune Metellus Nepos to recall Pompey and place him in command against Catiline, but after passage of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum and his own suspension from office he made peace with his opponents (b). Clodius obtained sacrilegious entrance to the rites of the Bona Dea, which were celebrated at Caesar's house, and Caesar divorced his wife (c). He defended the Numidian prince Masintha against Hiempsal (d).

Broughton: Bibulus, with the support of three Tribunes of the Plebs (see below, Tribunes of the Plebs), opposed Caesar's agrarian law, but when proved powerless against the combination of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, retired to his house, and by announcements that he was watching for omens kept Caesar's legislation technically invalid (a). Caesar carried a Lex Iulia Agraria(3) early in the year, Probably in January (b), and in May added another to distribute the Campanian land to needy citizens with families (c). He had the acts of Pompey in the East ratified in a single law (d), and satisfied Crassus by remitting one-third of the contracts to the tax farmers of Asia (e). In return for a huge sum he ratified the position of Ptolemy Auletes as king of Egypt (f). Besides minor measures such as the publication of the Acta of the Senate, with which he began his regime (g), and his revival of the custom of being followed by his lictors in the months when he did not hold the fasces (g), he carried an important Lex de repetundis which regulated the procedures and demands of provincial governors more closely than before (h). He received command of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum by the Vatinian law (see below, Tribunes of the Plebs), and with Pompey's support the Senate decreed him Transalpine Gaul in addition (i).

Broughton: He was named Dictator, after enabling legislation carried by the Praetor Lepidus, while still at Massilia (a). Upon arrival in Rome, he carried through a program of debt relief (b), restoration of exiles (except Milo) and sons of the proscribed (c). He had already taken away lands and rights from Massilia (d), and granted citizenship to Gades (e). He also carried through the Latin Festival, the arrangements for provincial administration, and the elections for 48, and abdicated after eleven days (f). On the legality of Caesar's appointment, see Cic. Att. 9.9.3; and 15.2; Dio 41.36.1 and 4; Mommsen, Str. 23.126, note 2. See Praetors, on Roscius; and Tribunes of the Plebs, on Antonius.

Broughton: He was named Dictator for a second time after the victory at Pharsalus, probably late in October(1) (a), for an entire year (b). See Degrassi 132f.

Broughton: In this year Caesar brought an army across the Adriatic, and after winter engagements, such as his attempt to besiege Pompey at Dyrrachium, won a decisive victory over Pompey at Pharsalus, then pursued him to Egypt, and toward the end of the year became embroiled in the dispute between Cleopatra and her brother for the Egyptian throne (a). Servilius meantime in Italy (b) suppressed the illegal activities of Caelius Rufus (c; see below, Praetors), and after receiving news of Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, named him Dictator for a second time (d; see below, Dictator).

Brougthon: In this year Caesar completed his campaign in Alexandria, recovered and began his reorganization of the East, including Asia Minor, returned to Italy in September, and after a short stay, during which he had to cope with mutinous soldiers, set out for Africa before the end of the year to deal with the Pompeian forces there (a). While in Rome he made Antony, Dolabella, and others among his followers pay for their purchases of confiscated Pompeian properties (b). To meet the financial emergency, he made property values at the beginning of the war the basis for calculation of payments of debts, remitted interest from the beginning of the war, and released tenants in Rome from payments of rents up to 500 denarii per year, tenants in Italy up to 125 denarii per year (c). For a full citation of the sources, see D.-G. 3.486-511, and 519-522. On the duration of this dictatorship, see 48, note 1.

Broughton: Caesar was named Dictator, probably late in April, for a period of ten years (a), in succession, presumably for the third time for one year and designated for each of the next nine, and rei gerendae rather than rei publicae constituendae causa (see Degrassi 133; and note Bell. Hisp. 2.1, Caesar dictator tertio, designatus dictator quarto, and Grueber, CRRBM 2.576, Dict. iter., Cos. tert., and 1.357ff., Dict. ter., and the notice of his third dictatorship in Fast. Cap. for 45, Degrassi 56f., 133, 500f.). He also received the cura morum (b).

Broughton: During this year Caesar crushed the Pompeian forces in Africa (a), and returned to Rome to celebrate four triumphs, for his victories in each of Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa (b). It is not always possible to distinguish which of Caesar's measures were initiated in 46, and which belong to 45 or 44. In any case many were still incomplete at his death. We may note the following items: 1. his reform of the calendar (c); 2. provision that juries should consist only of senators and knights (d); 3. provision that praetorian governors of provinces should serve for only one year, and consular governors for two (e); 4. abolition of collegia, except those of ancient foundation (f); 5. persons condemned de vi and de maiestate were to be interdicted from fire and water (g); 6. sumptuary laws which limited the expenses of banquets, the use of litters, etc. (h); 7. prizes for large families (i); 8. Cleopatra of Egypt was made a friend and ally of Rome (j). He also advanced large building enterprises, such as the Basilica Iulia and the Iulian Forum (k), reduced the number of recipients of public grain (l), and carried on through this year and until his death a huge program of colonization and settlement of veterans, as well as colonization of the poor of the city (m). He left Rome in the second intercalary month for his final campaign with the Pompeians in Spain (see 45, Consuls). Lepidus held the election at which Caesar became Consul for the fourth time (n). (o)

Broughton: Caesar's third dictatorship continued until April, 45, and was immediately followed by his fourth, which in turn continued until he became Dictator for life at some time between January 26 and February 15, 44 (a). His Spanish campaign ended in a final victory at Munda over the Pompeian forces (b), and he was saluted as Imperator at Ategua (c), a title which the Senate later decreed should be permanent (d). He celebrated a triumph for his victory in early October (e). He granted pardons very freely to his foes (f). Various measures, some of which may have been promulgated in 46, involved a large increase in the membership of the Senate (g), additions to the numbers of the regular annual magistrates, fourteen Praetors in 45 and sixteen in 44, increase of the Aediles to six, through the creation of the Aediles Ceriales, and the election of forty Quaestors in 45 (h). He created new patrician families (i), and extended the pomerium (j). He provided that citizens between the ages of twenty and forty must not remain outside of Italy more then three successive years (k), and no son of a senator unless he served on an administrative staff (ibid.). He revived customs dues in Italy (l), and provided that grazers must employ freemen up to at least one-third of their herdsmen (m). Special honors upon his return from Spain included the right to wear the triumphal garb and the laurel wreath on all occasions, to enter the city on horse from the Latin Festival, the title Imperator for life and for his heirs, and the title of Liberator, a golden chair, and statues on the Rostra adorned with the corona civica and the corona obsidionalis, as well as statues in the temples (n). On the year 45, see D.-G. 3.570-604.

Broughton: Consul, without a colleague, until he abdicated about October 1 (a).

Broughton: Caesar was still Dictator for the fourth time at the beginning of the year, but he became Dictator Perpetuus at some time after January 26, when he celebrated an ovatio as Dictator IIII, and February 15 (a). The excessive honors, including deification (b), which were paid to Caesar in the last months of his life included a prefectship of public morals for life (c), provision that magistrates should swear to uphold the validity of his acts (d), an oath, taken by all the senators, to protect his person (e), the title Parens Patriae (f), the naming of the month of July in his honor (see above, on Antony), provision that his son should be Pontifex Maximus (g), the right to a gilded chair and triumphal robe and a laurel crown on public occasions (h), a temple to his Clemency (i). He was actually deified with Antony as his Flamen (see above). He was murdered by the conspirators on the Ides of March, just before his intended departure for a campaign against the Parthians. On his honors, see esp. L. R. Taylor, Divinity of the Roman Emperor 58-77; on his acts in 44, D.-G. 3.604-656; RE, cols. 250-257; T. Rice Holmes, Roman Republic 3.330-344, and 567.

MT: No further comments in MRR2. This is the year he was assassinated (Ides of March).